Researchers build and verify a blockchain framework that turns images, video and PDFs into NFTs

A research team has built, run and formally verified a blockchain framework that converts image, video and PDF files into non-fungible tokens, and then measured how much minting actually costs on a test network. According to Bioengineer.org, whose report on the study was published on 9 November 2026, the study appears in the journal Discover Networks. The average gas consumption for minting one token was 282,108 gwei. The source describes gas as a fee deducted during wallet approval when a token is minted. The number matters because it is one of the few hard measurements in a field where most papers stop at theory. The team — Jhuma Dutta, Nisha Yadav, Ayan Pal, Subhas Barman, Matangini Chattopadhyay and Samiran Chattopadhyay — tested files ranging from 1.92 to 427 kilobytes across PNG, GIF and PDF formats. Those sizes are small. The framework is built for documents and graphics, not feature-length video.

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